The Afghan International Journal of Science (AIJS) is a peer-reviewed, open-access academic journal devoted to the advancement of scientific knowledge across multiple scientific disciplines. Published in by Afghanistan Islamic International University, the journal seeks to foster research excellence by offering a credible platform where scholars, researchers, and practitioners from around the world can share original findings, innovative ideas, and practical solutions. AIJS welcomes high-quality submissions in all recognized domains. The scope of the journal includes, but is not limited to, the following fields: Agricultural Economics and Rural Development, Agronomy, Animal Nutrition Engineering Structural Engineering, Mining Engineering and Management, Artificial Intelligence, and Software Engineering In publishing work across this broad range, AIJS is committed to upholding the highest standards of academic integrity, promoting interdisciplinary dialogue, and contributing to the scientific development and engaging the global research community.
High Demand and Limited Access to Agricultural Credit: Evidence from Farmers in Nangarhar Province, Afghanistan
Agricultural credit plays a critical role in enhancing farm productivity and sustaining rural livelihoods in developing economies characterized by capital-constrained smallholders. This study examines farmers' credit demand, its structure, and the barriers affecting access to formal financial services. Primary data were collected through a structured questionnaire administered to 240 farmers across ten districts of Nangarhar Province. Descriptive statistics, Likert-scale analysis, and cross-tabulations were used to analyze credit demand and utilization. The results revealed that 90.42% of surveyed farmers expressed a demand for agricultural credit, with 40.0% reporting a very high level of demand, while 62.5% of respondents identified government sources as their preferred source of credit. However, only 11.3% of respondents were aware of formal credit programs. Collateral availability emerged as a significant barrier, as only 38% of households possessed formal land documentation. Farmers primarily demanded small-ticket loans: 79.73% of respondents reported a credit demand of less than AFN 200,000 for seasonal input purchases. In addition, farmers showed a strong preference for installment-based and seasonal repayment schedules. These findings highlight a structural paradox: while farmers recognize the importance of credit for improving agricultural productivity, institutional barriers continue to limit access to formal financial systems. Policy recommendations include expanding financial services, strengthening awareness campaigns, introducing alternative collateral mechanisms, aligning repayment schedules with agricultural cycles, and linking credit provision with extension services. The study provides actionable insights for policymakers and financial institutions seeking to design inclusive and accessible credit schemes tailored to the needs of smallholder farmers in Nangarhar Province.
Copyright (c) 2026 Naeemullah Rahmani, Hamidullah Younisi, Abdulwadood Noori, Mohammad Sadiq Naseri (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Prioritizing Modern Mining Technologies for Afghanistan Using a Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis Framework
The mining sector in Afghanistan, with its vast mineral resources, faces challenges in adopting modern technologies due to infrastructure and economic limitations. Despite the availability of various modern mining technologies, no prioritization framework has been proposed for Afghanistan. This research fills this gap by presenting an evidence-based prioritization in Afghanistan. Fifteen modern mining technologies were identified through a systematic literature review, and weights for five important criteria were determined through a survey of 100 Afghan mining experts. The Simple Additive Weighting (SAW) method was used for prioritization, and sensitivity analysis was conducted to confirm the validity. The findings indicate that GIS & RS, UAVs, Air & Dust Pollution Monitoring, and Renewable Energy Technologies are the four top priorities. Conversely, technologies such as AI, Blockchain, Automation, and Digital Twins are ranked lowest. This framework provides a strategic tool for gradual, context-appropriate adoption of Afghanistan's mining sector by policymakers and investors.
Copyright (c) 2026 Zaman Nihzat, Aref Naimzad, Mohammad Fahim Weyaar (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Deficit Irrigation Effects on Potato Growth, Yield, Quality, and Water Use Efficiency: A Review
Global agriculture is the largest consumer of freshwater. Water scarcity, especially in arid and semi-arid regions, is a major constraint to sustainable potato production. Comprehensive scientific evaluation of appropriate levels, timing, and methods of deficit irrigation remains limited. The objective of this review was to evaluate different deficit irrigation strategies. The focus was on potato yield, quality, and water-use efficiency. Relevant studies were collected from reputable scientific journals. These included field experiments, greenhouse studies, models, and meta-analyses. The data were analyzed using comparative and descriptive approaches. The results showed that moderate deficit irrigation reduces water consumption. It increases water-use efficiency. It also maintains or improves yield and quality. These effects are especially evident during the early growth stages. Methods such as PRD, AFI, and SSI are effective in saving water. They also improve production stability. However, the tuber formation and flowering stages are highly sensitive to water deficit. In conclusion, proper scheduling is important. Moderate deficit irrigation is an effective practical strategy. It ensures water saving. It increases economic benefits. It also supports sustainable potato production. These findings provide a scientific basis for decision-making for farmers and water management institutions.
Copyright (c) 2026 Zabihullah Faizi, Hamid Salari, Mohammadullah Amin, Nasir Ahmad Ziarmal (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Growth and Instability in Area, Production, and Productivity of Apple in Afghanistan
This study addresses the lack of empirical evidence on the growth, instability, and export performance of apple production in Afghanistan by examining changes in area, production, and productivity from 2011 to 2023, with a focus on the major apple-producing provinces. The objective was to estimate growth rates, assess instability, and analyze export trends. The study used secondary data from NSIA (2023) and applied a semi-log functional form to estimate compound growth rates, while instability was measured using the Cuddy-Della Valle Index (CDVI). The results revealed positive growth in area, production, and productivity across most provinces, except for a decline in area in Kabul (-1.42%). Higher growth rates were observed in Maidan Wardak, Ghazni, and Paktia provinces. Instability analysis showed low variability in Kabul, moderate in Maidan Wardak, and high in Ghazni and Paktia. Furthermore, trend analysis from 2009 to 2023, with projections to 2026, indicated increasing production but a relatively low export share, suggesting a gap between production potential and export performance. The study highlights the need for improved export strategies and policy intervention.
Copyright (c) 2026 Sebghatullah Samim, Mohammad Ismail Hashime (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The Development of High-Performance Concrete Using Afghanistan's Mineral-Rich Aggregates for Strategic Infrastructure: A Review
Infrastructure development depends on high-performance concrete (HPC), particularly in Afghanistan, where growing building needs necessitate long-lasting, environmentally friendly materials. With its compressive capabilities, HPC can enhance strength, durability, and environmental resilience by utilizing natural additives, such as zeolite and calcite, in conjunction with Afghanistan's abundant mineral-rich aggregates, including quartzite, basalt, and limestone. Despite the abundance of these local resources, little is known about how they might be in HPC. This study reviews the literature to explore it and evaluates cost, sustainability, and reduced reliance on imports by contrasting their features with HPC criteria. Afghanistan's mineral potential is contextualized through case studies from geologically similar countries. The study provides theoretical and comparative insights to promote resilient infrastructure by synthesizing research on mechanical characteristics, resilience to environmental stresses, and sustainability. The finding indicates that while additives like zeolite promote hydration and self-healing, lowering ecological impact, local aggregates increase strength and longevity. This strategy could help Afghanistan's industrial revolution and long-term infrastructure viability by reducing costs and emissions and promoting economic growth. The study closes gaps in the use of Afghanistan's mineral wealth to support sustainable HPC growth by offering practical ideas for researchers, construction specialists, and politicians.
Copyright (c) 2026 Naweed Ahmad Rabani, Abdulhai Kaiwaan, Abdullah Namdar (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
A Comprehensive Review of Dual Bell Nozzle
A dual-bell nozzle is an altitude-compensating nozzle that is an essential part of an engine, especially one designed to convert the high-temperature, high-pressure combustion gases efficiently into high-velocity exhaust to produce thrust in a rocket. Various studies have been conducted on nozzles, but a comprehensive review of the dual bell nozzle has not been conducted. It is proposed to conduct a review of the dual-bell nozzle. The research reviews highlighted the design, performance, experimental, analytical, and application studies conducted on the dual-bell nozzle. The study evaluates geometric sensitivity, transition behavior complexity, side-load challenge, and advanced thermo-structural materials, as these themes are of significant importance for the study, development, design, and manufacturing of dual-bell nozzle vehicles. It represents a well-validated concept with higher performance for next-generation aerospace vehicles.
Copyright (c) 2026 Mohammad Amir Sadiqi, Aref Naimzad (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Effect of Seed Tuber Suberization Methods on Growth and Yield of Potato under Kabul Climate Conditions
Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is an important food security crop in Afghanistan; however, low-quality seed tubers, poor agronomic practices, and disease incidence significantly limit productivity and tuber quality. Suberization plays a critical role in wound healing and seed tuber protection, yet its effectiveness under Kabul agro-climatic conditions remains insufficiently understood. Therefore, this study evaluated the effects of different suberization treatments on the growth and yield performance of the potato cultivar 'Cardinal' during the spring season of 2024 in Kabul, Afghanistan. The experiment was conducted using a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with six treatments: control (T1), natural suberization (T2), ash (T3), talc (T4), cement (T5), and whole tuber planting (T6), each replicated three times. Growth and yield parameters were recorded and statistically analyzed. The results demonstrated that different suberization treatments significantly improved vegetative growth and yield-related traits of potato. Talc treatment (T4) and whole tuber planting (T6) produced the highest tuber number (7.20 plant⁻¹), total yield (15.75- and 15.42-tons hectare⁻¹), sprouting percentage (97.83% and 98.61%), and tuber weight (119.88 and 114.12 g), respectively. Ash treatment (T3) also increased tuber weight (130.13 g). LSD analysis grouped T3, T4, and T6 as superior treatments. The findings indicate that effective suberization enhances wound healing, field establishment, and potato productivity under Kabul conditions. Based on overall performance, talc treatment (T4) is recommended for potato production. Future studies should investigate the physiological and molecular mechanisms of suberization and its interaction with bio-stimulants and storage conditions.
Copyright (c) 2026 Ahmad Jawid Zamany, Mohammadullah Amin, ᗅbdul Raziq Shinwari (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Impacts of K-humate on Wheat Production and Soil Salinity: A Review
Wheat (Triticum aestivum L) is the most significant staple food in terms of cultivation and consumption by humans around the globe. Most people worldwide regularly consume wheat or wheat products in their daily diet. Recently, wheat production has been negatively affected by climate change, especially drought. On the other hand, the population of wheat-consuming countries is also increasing rapidly. Thus, the production of wheat cannot meet the rising demand of the world's growing population. Furthermore, excessive application of mineral fertilizer in soil to increase wheat production has degraded most of the soils. Soil salinity and drought stress, particularly in arid regions, negatively impact wheat production. Thus, it is urgent to improve wheat production sustainably using bio-stimulants. The impacts of K-humate on wheat production and soil salinity together have not been investigated in previous studies. The review provides an overview, summary, and synthesis of recent research related to the topic. The objective of the review was to summarize the previous understanding of the impacts of K-humate on wheat production and soil salinity. Application of K-humate has not only increased wheat production sustainably but also improved soil properties and wheat tolerance to soil salinity and drought stress. The provided information may be helpful to researchers, policymakers, and wheat farmers in preparing their wheat-production plans using eco-friendly organic fertilizers, such as K-humate, to improve wheat production and reduce environmental constraints.
Copyright (c) 2026 Mohammad Sadiq Salihi (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Role of Micronutrients in Improving Yield and Fruit Quality in Grapes (Vitis vinifera L.): A Review
Although required in trace quantities, micronutrients play a crucial role in determining grapevine productivity and fruit quality. As a high-value horticultural crop, grapevines respond positively to well-balanced micronutrient management. Essential micronutrients, including iron, zinc, boron, manganese, copper, and molybdenum, are involved in key physiological and biochemical processes such as photosynthesis, enzyme regulation, flowering, fruit set, and berry development. Deficiencies of these elements often lead to impaired vine growth, reduced yield, inferior fruit quality, and increased susceptibility to physiological disorders. Numerous studies have demonstrated that appropriate micronutrient application through soil and foliar methods enhances grape yield and improves quality attributes, including total soluble solids, acidity, berry size, and coloration. This review highlights the importance of balanced micronutrient management for sustainable grape production and discusses the specific roles of selected micronutrients (Fe, Zn, B, and Cu) in influencing grape yield and fruit quality.
Copyright (c) 2026 Rahimullah Himatkhwah, Mohammad Sadiq Salihi, Ahmad Jawid Zamany (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Evaluation of Wheat Varieties under Different Sowing Dates in Irrigated Arid Conditions
Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is Afghanistan’s principal staple crop, yet national production remains below demand. In Farah province, irrigated wheat yields are constrained by climatic variability and suboptimal agronomic practices. This study evaluated the effects of sowing date and variety on yield performance under irrigated arid conditions during the 2022–23 season in Qala-Mohammad Jan village, Farah. A factorial experiment based on a randomized complete block design included three sowing dates (23 October, 11 November, and 1 December) and three varieties (Mazar-99, Darulaman-07, and Chont No.1) with three replications. Data were recorded on yield components, grain and straw yield, harvest index, and economic returns. Sowing on 11 November significantly improved effective tillers, spike length, grains per spike, thousand-grain weight, grain yield, harvest index, and net income (p < 0.05). Darulaman-07 outperformed other varieties across all parameters. Combining mid-November sowing with Darulaman-07 is recommended to enhance wheat productivity in irrigated arid regions of Afghanistan.
Copyright (c) 2026 Kazem Nikzad, Abdul Wasi Amiri, Mohammad Yousef Jami, Akhil Bharti (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Breastfeeding Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice among Female Health Workers in 80 Health Facilities in Nangarhar Province in 2025
The study was a cross-sectional study aimed at measuring the knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) of 263 female healthcare workers in Nangarhar Province, Afghanistan. Findings revealed that the general knowledge (84.7%) and positive attitudes were satisfactory. There was, however, a large gap (in terms of knowledge-to-practice), especially in on-demand feeding (61.6%). The structural barriers were the main ones: 32.7 percent said they were too busy, and 22.1 percent said there were no appropriate facilities available at work. Health workers are good to know, but systemic workplace constraints limit their practice. The interventions needed to fill this gap should include addressing environmental obstacles through compulsory lactation rooms and supportive workplace policies, empowering healthcare workers to serve as effective breastfeeding role models.
Copyright (c) 2026 Abdul Jalal Ibrahimi, Mohammad Reza Joya, Obaidullah Fahim (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Construction and Demolition Waste Management in Kabul, Afghanistan
Construction and demolition (C&D) waste constitutes a significant global waste stream with substantial environmental, social, and economic implications. In Kabul, rapid urbanization and redevelopment have increased C&D waste generation, yet information on its management is limited. This study examines the sources, management challenges, stakeholder roles, and policy frameworks associated with C&D waste in Kabul, addressing a gap in the literature that has largely overlooked this specific waste stream. Employing a mixed-methods approach, the research utilizes a structured questionnaire with 100 participants, semi-structured interviews, and direct observations. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics, while the qualitative data were analysed through thematic analysis. The primary causes of construction waste include inadequate planning, excessive material procurement, and frequent design modifications. Significant challenges identified are weak regulatory enforcement, insufficient recycling infrastructure, and low public awareness. The study recommends strategic interventions, including stricter regulations, improved recycling systems, and enhanced stakeholder collaboration. By referencing global best practices, it outlines a roadmap to align Kabul's C&D waste management with international sustainability standards.
Copyright (c) 2026 Imran Safi, Abdulhai Kaiwaan (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Determination of Final Pit Depth of the Western Part of the Aynak Copper Deposit by Surpac and NPV Software
the pit depth of the western part of the Aynak copper deposit. Despite exploratory boreholes in this area, the final pit depth has not yet been determined. Post-processing drilling data was used to model the deposit in Surpac, and the resulting model was imported into NPV Scheduler. Considering economic parameters, optimization was performed to determine the final pit limit and mining depth. The findings show that the optimal final pit depth is 540 meters. At this depth, the extractable reserve is estimated to be 57,353,400 million tons, with a cut-off grade of 0.3% and a stripping ratio of 1:4; open-pit mining is economically justified. These results can serve as a basis for decision-making in mining planning and the future development of the mine.
Keywords: Surpac, NPV Scheduler, Modeling, optimization, mining planning
Copyright (c) 2026 Sayedullah Safi, Mohammad Fahim Weyaar, Ghulam Sidiq Zahib, Ghulam Hasan Payman (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Assessment of Double-Glazing Performance on HVAC Energy Demand Using the HAP Simulation
Windows are a major source of heat loss and a significant contributor to solar heat gain in residential buildings, particularly in cold-dominated climates. In Kabul, Afghanistan, where winter heating demand is high, improving window thermal performance can significantly reduce HVAC energy consumption. This study evaluates the impact of double-glazed windows on heating and cooling loads in a typical mid-rise residential building using the Hourly Analysis Program (HAP). Two scenarios were simulated: single-glazed windows as the baseline and double-glazed windows (3 mm glass + 6 mm air gap) as the improved case, with all other building and operational parameters held constant. Results indicate that double glazing reduces the peak heating load by 14.9% and the cooling load by 6.2%, demonstrating improved thermal resistance, lower U-value, and reduced solar heat gain. These findings highlight double glazing as an effective and practical strategy for enhancing energy efficiency and indoor comfort in residential buildings in Kabul and similar cold and semi-cold climates.
Copyright (c) 2026 Abdul Rahman Erfan, Mohammad Mustafa Akbari (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Assessing Optimal Open-Pit Orientation Strategies in the Development Phase of Copper Mining: Environmentally Sustainable Approach
The article aims to select the optimal orientation for open-pit mining at the Aynak copper deposit in the central zone of Afghanistan. The one used is the one that studied integrates geological and environmental datasets derived from over 100 samples analyzed by the United States Geological Survey (USGS), the former Soviet Geological Survey, and the Afghanistan Ministry of Mining and Petroleum. The software used for analysis is QGIS, and AutoCAD is used. This research aims to determine the optimal orientation and design configuration for open-pit extraction during the Aynak project's developmental stage. The result demonstrated that the deposit percentage varies from 0.5 to 2.3 percent. Total ore tonnage is 368 Mt, average grade is 1.7 percent, and metal tonnage is 6 Mt. As a result, the best orientation method is from side to center (from the western side to the eastern side).
Copyright (c) 2026 Mohammad Jawad Jahed, Mohammad Fahim Weyaar, Aref Naimzad (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Assessment of Erosion Influence on Asphalt Pavement of Kabul-Kandahar Highway
Erosion and deterioration are critical issues affecting asphalt pavements in Afghanistan. This study presents a comprehensive evaluation of the causes, impacts, and mitigation strategies for asphalt pavement erosion along the Kabul–Kandahar Highway. Using a mixed-methods approach, data were collected through field surveys, questionnaires completed by 103 technical experts and engineers, and laboratory testing of aggregate and asphalt samples. Statistical analysis revealed that pavement erosion is significantly accelerated by climate variability—particularly rainfall and temperature fluctuations—and by heavy vehicle traffic, poor drainage infrastructure, and substandard construction materials. Surface erosion was the most prevalent damage type, followed by cracking, potholing, rutting, and reflective cracking. The study recommends using high-quality modified binders, such as Styrene-Butadiene-Styrene asphalt, improving drainage systems, enhancing technical capacity, and integrating climate-resilient design principles to extend pavement service life and ensure long-term durability under challenging environmental conditions.
Copyright (c) 2025 Barialai Mohammadi, Abdulhai Kaiwaan (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Challenges and Strategies for Construction and Demolition Waste Management in Kabul: A Comparative Analysis and Path Forward
Rapid urbanization in cities like Kabul has created pressing challenges in managing construction and demolition (C&D) waste, including poor infrastructure, illegal dumping, inadequate segregation, and limited regulation. This paper argues that policy fragmentation and a lack of recycling infrastructure are the primary obstacles to effective construction and demolition (C&D) waste management in Kabul. By assessing Kabul's current situation, contrasting it with international practices (Australia, Kuwait, Vietnam), and highlighting context-specific research gaps, the analysis demonstrates Kabul's urgent need for targeted, enforceable policies. Employing a comparative methodology, the paper demonstrates that developed nations effectively utilize economic incentives and policy coherence to promote C&D waste management. The study concludes that Kabul can make significant improvements by adopting clear policies that incentivize recycling, enhance segregation, and embrace circular economy practices.
Copyright (c) 2025 Imran Safi, Abdulhai Kaiwaan, Aref Naimzad (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Sensitivity Analysis of Key Mechanical Parameters in the Uniaxial Compressive Strength Test Using Numerical Simulation
Predicting the mechanical behavior of rocks under loading is crucial for stability analyses and the design of underground and mining structures. A primary challenge lies in identifying and quantifying the influence of Geomechanical parameters on ultimate strength and failure mechanisms. In this study, a parametric sensitivity analysis was conducted to assess the effects of four key parameters—loading rate, friction angle, cohesion, and Young's modulus—on rock behavior under compressive loading. Numerical simulations were performed by varying each parameter independently while keeping the others constant. Results indicate that increasing the loading rate enhances the peak strength. The ultimate strength is primarily governed by cohesion and the friction angle, whereas Young's modulus affects only stiffness and the slope of the elastic portion of the stress–strain curve, without influencing peak strength. All specimens exhibited post-peak softening, with failure characterized by progressive development of shear zones and fracture surfaces. Cohesion was found to exert a more substantial influence on ultimate strength than the friction angle.
Copyright (c) 2025 Gholam Ali Rahmani, Zaman Nihzat, Mohammad Jawad Jahed (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Attitudes Toward the Nursing Profession Among First- and Final-Year Nursing Students at Kabul University of Medical Sciences
Nursing students' attitudes affect learning, professional performance, and adaptation to clinical practice. This study assessed and compared the attitudes of first- and final-year nursing students at the School of Nursing, Kabul University of Medical Sciences, Abu Ali Ibn Sina, Afghanistan. A cross-sectional descriptive–analytical study was conducted among 128 students. Data were collected using a structured self-administered questionnaire. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used, with chi-square tests for categorical associations. Overall, 85% of students reported positive attitudes toward nursing. No significant associations were found between overall attitudes and academic year or sex. However, Final-year students reported significantly less favourable attitudes regarding workload, safety, salary, community respect, student comfort, and patient care satisfaction. Institutional measures are recommended to sustain positive attitudes and strengthen professional commitment.
Copyright (c) 2025 Mohammad Isaq Mohammadi, Zaker Hussain Hussainpour (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Investigating Listening Difficulties Faced by Undergraduate English Major Students at Kabul University
This study explores the causes of listening difficulties among students in the English Language and Literature Department at Kabul University. Although listening challenges have been widely studied globally, limited research has addressed this issue in Afghanistan. Using a quantitative approach, data were collected from 50 undergraduate students through a questionnaire. Descriptive statistics, including frequencies and percentages, were used for analysis. The findings revealed that students face listening problems due to both external and internal factors. External challenges include noise, large class sizes, and inadequate teaching materials, while internal factors include limited vocabulary, difficulty understanding fast speech, and difficulty concentrating. The study concludes with recommendations to help students and educators improve listening comprehension and suggests directions for future research.
Copyright (c) 2025 Shams Ur Rahman Sarwar, Abdullah Noori (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Analytical Evaluation of Reinforcement Methods for Concrete-Iron Members and Their Economic Implications
The primary objective of reinforcement is to enhance the behavior and performance of structural components against seismic forces. Various techniques are available for reinforcing concrete and buildings, with concrete-iron members among the most widely used methods. In this study, load-bearing capacity, flexural strength, shear strength, and design error correction are introduced as key indicators for evaluating different reinforcement methods. The influence of concrete-iron coatings, including steel and fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) coatings, on these indicators has been assessed. The findings indicate that reinforcing concrete-iron members significantly improves load-bearing capacity, flexural strength, shear strength, and design error correction, while also reducing the usable internal area. In projects where unexpected loads or variations in loading conditions are anticipated, reinforcement can mitigate additional costs associated with structural failures or load mismatches. This is particularly crucial for structures exposed to seismic activities, extreme temperature fluctuations, or dynamic loads.
Copyright (c) 2025 Muhammad Nasim Rahimi, Amanullah Faqiri (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0